Nalanda Monastastic University was the greatest center of Buddhist learning in India’s glorious past. With upwards of 30,000 monks and nuns including 2,000 teachers living, studying and practicing there during its heyday, Nalanda was unmatched. Established during the Gupta Dynasty in the late 5th to early 6th century C.E. under the patronage of the Gupta king Shakraditra, the institution survived for six hundred years, through the Pala Dynasty, until ultimately being destroyed in 1203 by Turkish Muslim invaders. In 1204 the last throne-holder (abbot) of Nalanda, Shakyashribhadra, fled to Tibet. In the intervening centuries, however, many of India’s greatest Buddhist masters trained and taught at Nalanda.
Nalanda’s renown as a center for higher learning spread far. It attracted students from as far away as Greece, Persia, China and Tibet. Although Buddhism was naturally the central focus of study, other subjects including astronomy, medicine (Ayurveda), grammar, metaphysics, logic, philosophy of language, classical Hindu philosophy, non-Indian philosophy and so forth were all regularly studied. Chinese pilgrims who visited Nalanda in the 7th century C.E. give detailed accounts of the physical premises and activities in their travelogues. For example, they describe three nine-story buildings comprising the library that housed millions of titles in hundreds of thousands of volumes on a vast variety of topics!
Much like the large Gelug monasteries of Sera, Drepung and Ganden, living quarters were divided according to regions of the world from which the monks and nuns came. There are clear records of a well-populated Tibet Vihara at Nalanda during the later period. In fact, history reveals that at one point there was a Tibetan gatekeeper at Nalanda. The gatekeepers were traditionally the top scholars/debaters at the institution. Their job was to stand “guard” at the gate and defeat in debate any non-Buddhist who proposed to challenge the scholarship and ideas of the institution. If they could not defeat the gatekeeper in debate, they would not be allowed further into the monastery.
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Nagarjuna 龍樹菩薩
(c. 2nd century C.E.)
Nāgārjuna is a highly renowned Indian master in the history of Buddhism. He is one of the two pioneers of the philosophical chariot tradition. According to many Tibetan historians, this master appeared about 400 years after Buddha's parinirvana. In the "History of Buddhism in India" written by Jonang Tāranātha, it is said that in the latter part of his life, Nāgārjuna went to southern India to spread Buddhism. During this time, he traveled to a place called Shulika in the land of Togar (possibly near Turkey, maybe referring to Syria) and initially composed the barbarian religion. Later, his disciple named Bekhampa studied under him and then went to the land of Makha (possibly referring to Rome, the capital of Italy) to begin spreading the barbarian religion. It seems that Nāgārjuna's journey to southern India in the latter part of his life began around the start of the first century CE, but I haven't seen more detailed historical records than this. This master was born into a wealthy Brahmin family in the southern Indian region of Vidarbha. When shown to a fortune teller, it was said he would live no more than seven years. His parents, unable to bear the sight of their son's corpse, sent him away with servants to wander in other lands. Eventually, he arrived at Nālandā, the largest monastery in central India, where he met Master Brahmin Saraha and received a long-life empowerment. He also received many Tantric teachings, including Guhyasamāja. He took monastic vows under Abbot Rāhulabhadra and was given the name Bhikshu Shrīmant. While serving as the monastery's steward (responsible for the monks' livelihood), a great famine occurred. He obtained an alchemical elixir from an island and sold the gold it produced to provide for the sangha. When the monks asked about this, he honestly explained. The monks said that trading without their permission to provide for their livelihood was against the dharma rules, so they expelled him from the monastery. He then went to another land where he built many temples and stupas. When the master was nearly 100 years old, he extensively taught the Tripitaka to many fortunate beings. At that time, a monk named Debjed (Sukha) composed a treatise called "Ornament of Reasoning" in 120,000 verses to refute both the view and conduct of the Mahayana. To tame him, the master gave extensive teachings at Nalanda. At that time, two children came to listen to the teachings, and a pleasant fragrance pervaded the surroundings. When they left, the fragrance disappeared. When asked about this, they said, "We are sons of the Naga king Takshaka. We use the fragrance of goshirsha sandalwood when coming to the human realm." When asked if they could obtain this sandalwood, they said they would ask their father. When they asked their father, the Naga king said he would offer it if the master came to the Naga realm. Seeing many purposes, such as generating roots of virtue for countless disciples in the Naga realm and bringing back the Prajnaparamita in One Hundred Thousand Verses (the single mother of all Buddhas) which didn't exist in the human realm, the master went to the Naga realm. He taught the dharma to many Nagas, who were very pleased and requested him to stay. He replied, "Now I've come to look for clay to build ten million stupas and to bring back the Prajnaparamita, so I can't stay. I might come back later." He then returned to Jambudvipa with much Naga clay, the Prajnaparamita in One Hundred Thousand Verses, and many dharanis. It's said that the Nagas, as a guarantee for the master's return to their realm, didn't send a small part from the end of the Prajnaparamita. Thus, the extensive Prajnaparamita brought from the Naga realm lacks the chapters on Sadaprarudita and Dharmodgata. These two chapters from the end of the Eight Thousand Verses were appended to the end of the extensive Prajnaparamita. Therefore, there is no difference at all between these two chapters and those in the extensive and abbreviated Prajnaparamita. Thus, having taken the Naga clay and built about ten million stupas, and having brought the Prajnaparamita in One Hundred Thousand Verses and other texts to the human realm, he became known as Nagarjuna. Then, he built many temples and stupas throughout all directions, especially in the six great cities of central India, including Shravasti. He surrounded the Bodhi tree at Vajrasana (Bodhgaya) with a stone lattice fence. He encircled the glorious Dhamekh Stupa with an iron fence and built 108 temples inside. He traveled to Uttarakuru in the north and benefited beings there. On the way to Uttarakuru, in the city of Salama, he prophesied that a child named Jitaka would become king based on the lines on his palm. In the latter part of his life, he primarily resided at Sri Parvata in South India, where he extensively turned the wheel of Sutra and Tantra Dharma. In particular, he propagated the Mahayana Madhyamaka view, leading countless disciples to the Mahayana path. While he was extensively working for the Buddha's teachings, the evil Mara and his retinue, unable to tolerate this out of jealousy, entered the womb of Queen Sucaritavati, wife of King Udayi Bhadra (the child prophesied earlier when Nagarjuna was traveling to Uttarakuru). The child born was known as Prince Kumara Bala. When his mother gave him a fine, unwrinkled garment that was rare in the world, the boy said, "Keep this now. I'll wear it when I rule the kingdom." His mother replied, "Your father and Acharya Nagarjuna have achieved the same lifespan elixir, so you won't be able to rule until Nagarjuna passes away." The boy became sad and cried. His mother then said, "Don't cry. The Acharya abides in the vast conduct of bodhisattvas. If you ask for his head, he will give it to you. Then your father will also die, and you will obtain the kingdom." Following this, the prince went to Sri Parvata to ask for Nagarjuna's head. Nagarjuna said, "Cut as you wish." The prince tried to cut with a very sharp sword, but couldn't. Then Nagarjuna said, "When I was previously a monastery steward, I accidentally cut an insect's neck while cutting reeds. Due to that misdeed, cut with a blade of kusha grass." When he did so, it cut through. At that time, milk-like blood flowed, and it's said that these words came from the severed head: "I have gone to the realm of Sukhavati, and will re-enter this body." The king, fearing the head would reattach, threw it about a mile away. However, through the master's alchemical practices, his body and head turned to stone. Gradually, year by year, the head and body moved closer together without deteriorating. Finally, they rejoined, and the master was said to benefit the teachings and beings extensively, just as when he was alive. He became like a second Buddha in both sutra and tantra traditions. There are two accounts of this master's lifespan - one saying he lived for 600 years, another for 300 years. However, Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India" explains that both calculations counted half-years as full years, so in any case he seems to have lived a very long life. This master authored many treatises, including "Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way", "Sixty Stanzas on Reasoning", "Seventy Stanzas on Emptiness", "Refutation of Objections", "Pulverizing the Categories", "Compendium of Sutras", "Precious Garland of Advice for the King", "Letter to a Friend", "Compendium of Tantras", and many others on various topics like medicine, politics, and alchemy. Most of these were translated into Tibetan during King Trisong Detsen's time and are included in the Tengyur. He had countless disciples nourished by the nectar of his excellent teachings. Among them, four were considered his main spiritual sons: Shakyamitra, Nagabodhi, Aryadeva, and Matanga. Three were considered his close disciples: Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka, and Chandrakirti. Of these, Aryadeva was considered unparalleled and together with Nagarjuna they were known as "Father and Son" and also as the earliest Madhyamika philosophers. Nagarjuna is depicted with his left foot extended, both hands in the wheel-turning gesture, and adorned with a seven-headed serpent above his head, offered by the Naga king. The most detailed account of this master's life story in Tibetan can be found in Jonang Taranatha's "The Source of Jewels: The Lineage Histories of the Seven Transmissions".
Aryadeva 聖天菩薩
( c. 3rd century C.E.)
Aryadeva (Master Aryadeva) Known as Master Phagpa Lha in Tibetan. He was a later disciple of Master Nagarjuna. Buddhists revere him as equal to Nagarjuna himself. He was highly skilled not only in Buddhism but also in non-Buddhist philosophies. Some Tibetan histories claim he was miraculously born from a lotus flower in a royal garden in Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). However, according to reliable Indian historical sources cited in Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India," he was the son of King Panchashrigama of Ceylon. He was ordained by Abbot Hemadeva and received full monastic vows. He then traveled to mainland India to visit temples and stupas. There, he met Nagarjuna who was visiting the south, and studied both sutra and tantra completely under him. Before Nagarjuna passed away, he appointed Aryadeva as his successor to spread Buddhism in southern India. Aryadeva built 24 temples and monasteries, establishing Buddhist institutions in all of them. He defeated the unrivaled debater Brahmin Thubka Nagpo in debate, who then became his disciple known as Master Pawoe. Aryadeva also resided at Nalanda Monastery for a long time. He spent his later years in southern India, where he eventually passed away. His main works include: "Catuhsataka" (400 Verses), its abbreviated version "Hasta-valaprakarana," "Jnanasarasamuccaya," "Caryamelapakapradipa," "Cittavisuddhiprakarana," and various tantric texts. These were translated into Tibetan by Patsab Nyima Drak and others in the 11th century and are included in the Tengyur. For a detailed biography, refer to Buton Rinpoche's "History of Buddhism" and the 17th chapter of Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India."
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Buddhapalita 佛護論師(470-550 C.E.)
Master Buddhapalita (Prasangika) This is one of the four main Buddhist philosophical schools. They are called Prasangika because they believe that merely using consequential arguments (prasanga) can generate valid inference in the opponent's mind about the thesis to be proven. They assert that to generate valid inference about the thesis, it is not necessary to state syllogisms. Instead, they believe that merely pointing out internal contradictions through consequential arguments to refute others' misconceptions can generate valid inference about emptiness in the opponent's mind. The definition of Prasangika is that they assert the absence of intrinsic nature, not accepting even conventionally that things exist by way of their own characteristics. According to this tradition, shortly after Asanga appeared in the world and established the Cittamatra school, Buddhapalita, a direct disciple of Nagarjuna and Aryadeva, composed a commentary on the "Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way" called "Buddhapalita". He explained the reasoning of the root text using many consequential arguments without stating autonomous syllogisms. Later, Master Bhavaviveka criticized Buddhapalita's commentary and gave many reasons why autonomous syllogisms should be used, thus establishing the Svatantrika tradition. Subsequently, Chandrakirti composed "Entering the Middle Way" and "Clear Words", a commentary on the "Fundamental Wisdom", explaining that the intent of Nagarjuna and Aryadeva is as Buddhapalita interpreted, that the criticisms against Buddhapalita are invalid, and giving many arguments against accepting autonomous syllogisms and for not accepting them. He thus interpreted the ultimate intent of the Noble One as Prasangika Madhyamaka. However, there are two views on who established the Prasangika tradition: some say it was Buddhapalita, while others say it was Chandrakirti. Most scholars, including Je Tsongkhapa, assert that Master Chandrakirti was the founder of the tradition.
Bhavaviveka 清辨論師
(500-578 C.E.)
Acharya Bhāvaviveka (Svātantrika Madhyamaka) This is one of the two divisions of Madhyamaka. They are called Svātantrika because they refute true existence based on valid syllogisms with three modes that are established from their own side. They accept as valid cognition the non-erroneous consciousness that perceives objects as existing from their own side or from the side of their basis of designation, without merely adhering to the opponent's assertions. Both the proponent and opponent agree that the object of such valid cognition is its found object. The meaning of Svātantrika is that they establish the subject as a commonly appearing phenomenon, and then posit the modes of the reason that prove the predicate (which the proponent wishes to know about the subject) to generate an inference realizing the probandum. The Madhyamaka system that appropriately presents arguments in this way is called Svātantrika Madhyamaka. The definition of Svātantrika Madhyamaka is: those who assert the non-existence of inherent nature while accepting conventional existence established by its own characteristics. The Svātantrikas assert that existence by its own characteristics, existence by its own nature, and existence by its own essence are established conventionally. They believe that if these are not established conventionally, it would lead to a nihilistic view. However, they do not assert true existence, ultimate existence, existence as suchness, and genuine existence even conventionally. This system was pioneered by Acharya Bhāvaviveka. It is divided into two: Yogācāra Svātantrika Madhyamaka and Sautrāntika Svātantrika Madhyamaka.
Chandrakirt 月稱
(600-650 C.E.)
Chandrakirti According to the "Red Annals" written by Tsalpa Kunga Dorje, this master is counted among the Six Ornaments of the World. However, in general Tibetan history, Aryadeva is counted instead, and this master is not usually included. There are various accounts as to whether this master was a direct disciple of Nagarjuna, but in his own work "Clear Lamp: Commentary on the Root Tantra of Guhyasamaja," he states that he was a direct disciple of Nagarjuna. Moreover, in Atisha's "Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment," it is also stated that this master was a direct disciple of Nagarjuna, so there is no mistake about this. He was born in Samanta in South India. From a young age, he mastered all fields of knowledge. He became a monk in the southern region. He learned many Sutra and Tantra teachings from many disciples of Nagarjuna, Buddhapalita, and Bhavaviveka, particularly mastering the texts of Madhyamaka and Secret Mantra. He served as the abbot of Nalanda Monastery for a long time, and in his later years, he returned to his birthplace in the south, where he founded many temples and monasteries. It is said that he lived for about 300 years, which may not be true, but he seems to have lived a long life. His student was Rigpe Kyuchug the Elder, whose student was Rigpe Kyuchug the Younger (Lama Jampa's Yogi), whose student was the great master Atisha. Atisha was born in the Water Horse year (982) before the first Tibetan Rabjung cycle and arrived in Ngari via Nepal from India at the end of the Iron Snake year (1040) of the first Rabjung cycle, at the age of 61. From the end of Nagarjuna's life at the beginning of the first century to Atisha's birth, there are more than 900 years spanning nine centuries, which is well known to all. While those with genuine faith in Buddhism do not doubt this at all, from a historical materialist perspective, this seems to be a basis for claiming that Buddhist history is fabricated. The treatises composed by this master include: "Prasannapada: Clear Words, Commentary on Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way," "Madhyamakavatara: Introduction to the Middle Way" and its auto-commentary, "Madhyamakasastraprajnavatara: Introduction to the Wisdom of the Middle Way," commentary on Nagarjuna's "Yuktisastika: Sixty Stanzas of Reasoning," commentary on "Catuhsataka: Four Hundred Verses on the Yogic Deeds of Bodhisattvas," and "Pancaskandhaprakarana: Treatise on the Five Aggregates." Most of these were translated into Tibetan in the 11th century CE by translators such as Ngok Lotsawa and Patsab Lotsawa. They are found in volumes 'A' and 'Ya' of the Sutra section of the Narthang edition of the Tengyur. Regarding Secret Mantra, the "Pradipoddyotana: Clear Lamp Commentary on the Root Tantra of Guhyasamaja" and the commentary on the "Sadangayoga: Six-Branch Yoga of Guhyasamaja" were translated into Tibetan by Rinchen Zangpo, the translator from Ngari, at the end of the 10th century CE. These are found in volume 'Sha' of the Tantra section of the Narthang edition of the Tengyur. The biography of this master can be found in Buton Rinchen Drub's "History of Buddhism" and Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India."
Shantideva 寂天菩萨
(c. 8th century C.E.)
Shantideva According to Buddhist tradition, Shantideva was directly guided by Manjushri. He was born around the 7th or 8th century CE in a place called Saurastra, west of Bodhgaya in India, as the son of King Kalyanavarman. He was named Shantavarman. From a young age, he mastered all fields of knowledge. He had visions of Manjushri. The night before he was to be crowned king following his father's death, he fled to Nalanda, where he was ordained by Jayadeva, the chief of the five hundred panditas. He was given the name Shantideva. He studied the three baskets of Buddhist teachings from his preceptor and became supremely learned. He received teachings from Manjushri and mastered all the sutras and tantras. However, to ordinary people, he appeared to do nothing but eat, sleep, and relieve himself, without ever being seen reading or studying. Thus, he became known as the "Eat, Sleep, Poop Person." Once, during the Miracle Month, when it was his turn to recite the scriptures, most of the monks insisted that he take the high seat in the assembly of all the monks of glorious Nalanda. He asked whether they wanted him to recite something well-known or unknown. When they requested something unknown, he began to recite the great treatise "Bodhicaryavatara" (Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life). He recited up to the verse "Once neither a thing nor a no‐thing (its emptiness) remains before the mind, then as there is no other alternative, such as something being both a thing and a nothing, or being neither a thing nor a no‐thing, finally the mind that apprehends (truly existent) objects will cease and be totally pacified" As he continued reciting, he gradually rose higher and higher into the sky until his body disappeared, though his voice could still be heard continuously reciting the text until it was finished. Those who were able to remember it collected what they had heard, which amounted to one thousand verses, as prophesied. The treatises composed by this master include the aforementioned "Bodhicaryavatara" and the "Shikshasamuccaya" (Compendium of Training), among others.
Shantarakshita
寂護菩萨
(c. 8th century C.E.)
Acharya Shantarakshita He is one of the three figures known as "the Abbot, the Master, and the Dharma King". As he was present at the first establishment of Buddhist monastic ordination in Tibet, he is called the Abbot. Because he possessed bodhicitta in his mindstream, he is also referred to as a Bodhisattva. His actual name in Sanskrit is Śāntarakṣita, which translates to Shantarakshita (Keeper of Peace) in Tibetan. This holy person was born in the eastern Indian region of Bengal or Zahor. He was the middle of three royal siblings, born to King Tsuklak Dzin. He was ordained by Master Jñānagarbha at Nālandā University and received full ordination there. King Trisong Detsen sent Ba Salnang to invite him to Tibet. Upon meeting the king, he gave teachings on the ten virtues, eighteen dhātus, twelve links of dependent origination, and other topics at Lung Tshugs Palace, with Ananta from Kashmir serving as translator. He composed treatises such as the Madhyamakālaṃkāra and established the tradition of Yogācāra-Svatantrika-Madhyamaka. This great philosophical tradition was upheld in India by masters such as Haribhadra, Kamalaśīla, Dharmamitra and many other paṇḍitas. Scholars like Jñānapāda, Haribhadra, Abhayākaragupta and others also established the view of Prajñāpāramitā in accordance with this system. Although there were some proponents of Yogācāra-Madhyamaka before him, such as Āryadeva, all scholars agree that Śāntarakṣita was the actual founder of the Madhyamaka tradition that accords with Cittamātra by rejecting external objects. In Tibet, most early scholars followed this tradition, especially those who upheld it purely such as the great Ngok Lotsawa, Chapa Chökyi Senge, and Rongtön Chorje. This system was widely taught and studied up until the time of Je Tsongkhapa and his disciples, who highly valued it and wrote various commentaries on it. Other Madhyamaka proponents like Sakya Pandita also considered the teachings of Śāntarakṣita and his spiritual son (Kamalaśīla) as the essence of Madhyamaka thought. Śāntarakṣita designed the layout for Samye Monastery. He ordained the first seven Tibetan monks, establishing the first monastic community in Tibet. He introduced the combined study of Madhyamaka and Pramāṇa in Tibet. He established the study and translation of the Tripiṭaka. He is known as one of the "Abbot, Master and Dharma King" trio along with Guru Padmasambhava and King Trisong Detsen. He stayed in Tibet for over ten years in total before passing away.
Kamalashila 蓮華戒
(c. 8th century C.E.)
Kamalashila, meaning "Lotus Nature" or "Victor's Nature," was a renowned Indian Pandita who followed the Yogacara-Svatantrika-Madhyamaka tradition. Most historical accounts agree on this. It is recorded in both the iron-printed edition of 'Chos 'byung me tog snying po' (The Flower Essence of Religious History) by Nyangral Nyima Özer on page 332, and in the iron-printed edition of 'bKa' thang zangs gling ma' (The Copper Palace Pronouncements) by the same author on page 52, that Master Kamalashila was invited from China. In my opinion, this might be a copying error that occurred when transcribing from one manuscript to another, where the scribe may have skipped from one line to another below. I think the line above might have mentioned Heshang Mahayana coming to Tibet from China, and the next line should have stated that Master Kamalashila was invited from India. I believe this is certainly what it should have said, and I request that scholars examine this matter. Kamalashila was a direct disciple of Master Shantarakshita. After Shantarakshita's death, a Chinese monk named Hashang Mahayana introduced a new practice of sudden enlightenment, conflicting with Shantarakshita's gradual approach. This led to a division among Tibetan Buddhists. King Trisong Detsen arranged a debate between the two factions. Kamalashila was invited from Nepal to represent Shantarakshita's views. According to Tibetan histories, Kamalashila defeated Hashang in the debate. However, some modern scholars argue that Chinese sources claim victory for Hashang's side, questioning the reliability of Tibetan accounts. After the debate, Kamalashila stayed in Tibet for several years, composing important works like the "Three Stages of Meditation" and "Illumination of the Middle Way" at the king's request. These works further refuted Hashang's views. Tibetan histories claim that Kamalashila was assassinated by Hashang's followers, but this account is debated by scholars.
Noble Asanga 無著菩萨(300-390 C.E.)
Asanga (Acharya Arya Asanga) This master is considered one of the two great pioneers of Buddhist philosophy as he established the Yogacara (Mind-Only) school, one of the four main schools of Buddhist thought. While the exact time of his appearance is not clearly stated in Tibetan historical records, it is known that Asanga and Vasubandhu were half-brothers from the same mother. According to Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India," Vasubandhu and the Tibetan king Lha Thotori were contemporaries. The "White Annals" by Gendun Choephel of Amdo states that Vasubandhu's disciple Dignaga and the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo were contemporaries. Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India" also mentions that Dignaga's disciple Ishvarasena was the teacher of Dharmakirti, and that Dharmakirti and King Songtsen Gampo were contemporaries. Considering these connections, it appears that Arya Asanga lived from the 4th to the late 5th century CE. Asanga's father was of royal lineage, and his mother was a Brahmin woman named Prakashashila. When he grew up, he mastered the five sciences and, following his mother's advice, became a monk. He served the abbot, teachers, and the monastic community for one year. Then, after receiving full ordination as a monk, he spent five years studying Buddhism, memorizing and understanding ten thousand verses each year. He then spent many years practicing tantric Buddhism and studying Mahayana teachings. In the middle of his life, he spread Buddhism in Western India (Oddiyana, present-day Afghanistan) and Southern India, establishing over a hundred temples, stupas, and religious institutions. Although he had thousands of disciples, he usually kept only twenty-five monks in his immediate circle, all of whom had attained a certain level of realization in Buddhism. In the latter part of his life, he stayed at Nalanda Monastery in central India for about twelve years. He lived to be 150 years old and finally passed away in the city of Rajagriha. Asaṅga composed several important treatises, including commentaries on the extensive, medium, and concise Prajnaparamita sutras. Among his works is the "Determination of the Real," which explains the meaning of the _Abhisamayalankara_, and the "Five Treatises on the Levels," which elaborate on the three baskets of Mahayana teachings: 1. Grounds of Yogic Practices (_Yogācārabhūmi_) 2. Compendium of Ascertainment (_Nirṇayasaṃgraha_) 3. Compendium of Bases (_Vastusamgraha_) 4. Compendium of Enumerators (_Paryāyasaṃgraha_) 5. Compendium of Explanation (_Vivaraṇasaṃgraha_) He also composed the "Compendium of the Mahayana," which summarizes Mahayana teachings, and the "Compendium of Abhidharma," summarizing the common teachings of all vehicles. These works can be found in various volumes of the Tengyur, Narthang edition, specifically volumes Dzi, Wi, Zhi, Zi, 'I, Yi, and Li. His commentary on the _Samdhinirmocana Sutra_ and the commentary on the _Uttaratantra_ are also included in Tengyur, volume Phi. Except for the commentary on the _Uttaratantra_, which was translated in the early 11th century, all of these works were translated by Lotsawa Zhang Yeshe De during the reign of King Trisong Detsen in the mid-8th century. A detailed biography of Asanga can be found in the twenty-second chapter of Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India."
Vasubhandu 世親
(c. 4th century C.E.)
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Vasubandhu Master Vasubandhu was the younger brother of Master Asanga, sharing the same mother. Their father was of the Brahmin caste. Vasubandhu was born the year after Asanga became a monk. He became a monk at Nalanda Monastery at a young age and thoroughly studied the three baskets of the Hinayana teachings. He then went to Kashmir to study under Master Sanghabhadra, mastering the philosophical systems of six different Hinayana schools. Returning to Magadha, he received all the Mahayana teachings from Asanga. At that time, he memorized about 500 sutras of both Hinayana and Mahayana that were available in the human realm, reciting them once a year from memory. Due to his influence, about 500 Hinayana scholars converted to Mahayana. He mostly stayed in Magadha, teaching and restoring old temples. He established 108 new Mahayana centers. He once visited Odivisa in eastern India for over three months, teaching and establishing 108 new centers. Although he didn't go to southern India, he instructed others to establish many centers there. In total, it's said he established 654 centers. During his time, he had about 60,000 Mahayana monk disciples in various parts of India, with over 1,000 residing with him. In his later years, he took 5,000 learned disciples to Nepal to teach and establish centers. He passed away in Nepal after seeing a monk plowing a field while wearing monastic robes. His disciples built a stupa there. He lived for nearly 100 years. Vasubandhu authored many treatises. Among the famous ones translated into Tibetan are commentaries on various sutras, philosophical works like "Abhidharmakosa" and its auto-commentary, and treatises on Mahayana doctrine. Most of these were translated into Tibetan by Lotsawa Zhang Yeshe De during King Trisong Detsen's time. His biography can be found in Buton Rinpoche's "History of Buddhism" and in the 22nd chapter of Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India". The "Blue Annals" mentions that there were two Vasubandhus, earlier and later. The "History of Buddhism in China" (page 159) states that he was said to be contemporary with King Lha Thothori Nyentsen.
Dignaga 陳那
(6th century C.E.)
Dignāga (Master Dignāga) A disciple of Master Vasubandhu, he was highly skilled in logic and epistemology (pramāṇa). He was born in Siṃhavakta in southern India, near Kāñcī, into a Brahmin family. The time of his appearance is discussed in the section on Master Vasubandhu's biography. In his youth, he thoroughly studied non-Buddhist philosophical systems and Śrāvakayāna tenets. Later, he went to Master Vasubandhu and learned many Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna teachings. He then spent many years meditating in a cave in Odivisha in eastern India. Once, when a non-Buddhist philosopher named Sudurjaya came to Nālandā Monastery to debate with Buddhist scholars, none of the scholars there could defeat him. Dignāga was then invited from eastern India. He defeated the non-Buddhist in debate and converted him to Buddhism. Dignāga then returned to Odivisha, where he stayed for the rest of his life, occasionally teaching, refuting non-Buddhist arguments, and composing treatises. Although he had many students, he had no permanent attendants. He passed away in a secluded forest in that region, having maintained pure moral discipline. The exact age at which he died is not clear in the Tibetan historical records seen so far. Dignāga composed many scattered works, but those translated into Tibetan and well-known include "Pramāṇasamuccaya" and its auto-commentary, "Ālambanaparīkṣā" and its auto-commentary, "Traikālyaparīkṣā", "Nyāyapraveśa", and "Hetucakraḍamaru". These are found in volume 95 of the Tengyur's Sūtra section. "Abhidharmakośa-vṛtti Marma-pradīpa" is in volumes 115-116, and "Guṇāparyantastotra-ṭīkā" is in volume 34. Most of these, except for a few, were translated into Tibetan by Lotsawa Gewai Lodro and others in the mid-11th century. For a detailed biography of this master, refer to Buton Rinchen Drup's "History of Buddhism" and chapter 23 of Jonang Tāranātha's "History of Indian Buddhism".
Dharmakirti 法稱
(600-660 C.E.)
Dharmakirti (Acharya Dharmakirti) He was a direct disciple of Acharya Ishvarasena, who was a student of Acharya Dignaga. According to Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India," Dharmakirti and the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo were contemporaries. He was born in the southern Indian region called Trimalaya. His father, a Brahmin, was a non-Buddhist named Ro'anandra. In his youth, he thoroughly studied the five sciences and non-Buddhist philosophies, becoming highly proficient in non-Buddhist views by the age of eighteen. Later, after studying Buddhist texts, he abandoned non-Buddhist philosophies, causing his parents and relatives to expel him from home. He went to central India, where he became a monk under Master Dharmapala and extensively studied all Buddhist scriptures. He listened to the "Pramanasamuccaya" three times from Acharya Ishvarasena. At Nalanda, he defeated many famous non-Buddhist scholars in debates. He traveled to eastern and southern India, subduing many non-Buddhist philosophers and spreading Buddhism, establishing over a hundred temples and religious institutions. Although he had thousands of disciples, only five stayed with him constantly. At the end of his life, he resided in southern India and passed away in the land of Kalinga. Among his many treatises, the most famous and translated into Tibetan are the "Pramanavarttika," "Pramanaviniscaya," and "Nyayabindu," which were translated by Ngok Lotsawa Loden Sherab in the late 11th century. The "Hetubindu," "Sambandhapariksa," "Santanantarasiddhi," and "Vadanyaya" were translated by Lotsawa Bande Namkha and others in the mid-8th century and can be found in volume 95 of the Tengyur Sutra section. For a detailed biography of Dharmakirti, please refer to Buton Rinpoche's "History of Buddhism" and Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India."
Vimuktisena 圣解脱军
(6th century)
Arya Vimuktisena A 5th century Indian scholar and one who attained transcendental wisdom. He was one of the four chief disciples of Master Vasubandhu. He was born as a nephew of Master Buddhapālita in central India. From a young age, he took ordination in the Buddha's teachings and received full monastic vows. He went to study under Master Vasubandhu, respectfully serving him and mastering many fields of knowledge. In particular, he thoroughly studied the precious Prajnaparamita sutras, comprehending both their words and meaning, becoming extremely learned. He composed the great treatise called "Abhisamayālaṃkāra-vṛtti", which combines Maitreya's "Ornament of Clear Realization" with the "Twenty Thousand Verse Perfection of Wisdom Sutra". Moreover, he interpreted the meaning of the Perfection of Wisdom and the treatises in the Madhyamaka tradition, free from the extremes of existence, non-existence, permanence, and annihilation.
Haribhadra 獅子賢
(700-770 C.E.)
Acharya Sengge Zangpo He was a Svatantrika Madhyamaka master who aligned with the Yogacara-Vijnanavada school of ancient India. This master was born into a royal family. Some religious histories state that while he was still in his mother's womb, his mother was attacked by a lion. Although the lion devoured the mother's body, it did not eat the child in the womb, who was born safely. Thus, he was named Sengge Zangpo (Good Lion). When he grew up, he entered the Buddha's teachings and became fully ordained as a monk. He became learned in all the philosophical systems, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist. Particularly, to gain a deep understanding of the precious Prajnaparamita sutras, he properly relied on the great abbot Shantarakshita in both thought and practice. He thoroughly studied the Prajnaparamita instructions passed down from Maitreya through the works of Asanga and Vasubandhu, the texts of Arya Vimuktisena, and the Madhyamaka texts expounded by Arya Nagarjuna. Through this, he gained extraordinary experiential realization of the complete stages of the path of the three vehicles, which are the essence of the Buddha's teachings. Just as Maitreya had encouraged him in a dream to compose treatises, at the monastery of Tsawa Sum, he composed many works including a commentary on the Abhisamayalankara called "Sparsharthakarika", a manual combining the Abhisamayalankara and the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita called the "Great Commentary on the Eight Thousand Lines", a commentary on Arya Vimuktisena's "Eight Chapters Summarizing the Twenty Thousand Lines", and an easy-to-understand commentary on the "Ratnagunasamcayagatha" among others.
Gunaprabha 功德光
(c. 9th century C.E.)
Gunaprabha Master Gunaprabha was a disciple of Vasubandhu and was highly skilled in Vinaya (monastic discipline). He was born into a Brahmin family in Mathura. In his youth, he studied and mastered non-Buddhist philosophies and knowledge. Later, he became a bhikṣu in that region. Under Master Vasubandhu, he studied and mastered the scriptures of both Mahayana and Hinayana, as well as the tenets of all eighteen schools of the Shravakas. He had about five thousand monk disciples, among whom about five hundred were experts in one or two of the Tripitaka. It is said that he lived for about 400 years, which may not be true, but he seems to have lived a long life. Finally, he passed away in his birthplace. Although this master composed many treatises, among those translated into Tibetan, the most famous ones are "**Commentary on the Previous Chapters Leading up to the Ninth** of the Bodhisattvabhumi on the Stages of Giving" and "Commentary on the Chapter on Morality from the Bodhisattvabhumi." These two were translated separately by Nagtso Lotsawa and Zhang Yeshe De, and are found in volume 'Yi' of the Sutra section of the Tengyur. The "Vinaya Sutra," its auto-commentary, and the "101 Vinaya Ritual Procedures" were translated at the end of the 8th century during the reign of King Trisong Detsen by Cokro Lotsawa and Garong Tsultrim Jungne. These are found in volumes 'Zu', 'U', and 'Yu' of the Sutra section of the Tengyur. The biography of this master can be found in Buton Rinpoche's "History of Buddhism" and in the twenty-third chapter of Jonang Taranatha's "History of Buddhism in India."
Shakyaprabha 释迦光
(b. 8th century)
Shakya Od (Master Shakya Od) This master was also highly skilled in Vinaya. It's unclear when he lived, and I haven't yet seen a clear historical account of him. In his work "Vinaya Odden," he mentions that he was a disciple of both Master Sonam Drakpa and Zhiwa Od. The most well-known and translated treatises by this master in Tibet are: "The Three Hundred Verses on Vinaya" and its auto-commentary "Odden." These were translated into Tibetan by the translator Tsang Devendra Rakshita during the reign of King Trisong Detsen at the end of the 8th century. They are included in volume 'hu' of the sutra section of the Tengyur.
Atisha Dipamkara
阿底峽尊者
(982-1054)
Jobo-je Atisha (Dipamkara or Marme Dzed) (982-1054 CE) He was a great pandit who came to Tibet and founded the Kadam tradition. He was born in Bengal (now Bangladesh) in eastern India, the middle son of King Gewa Pal and Queen Palmo Ozer, who were of the same lineage as the great abbot Shantarakshita. From the age of five, he could recite teachings and spontaneously compose verses rich in inner meaning. Until age ten, he studied various arts. Then for ten years, he studied non-Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist grammar and logic. When he was just over twenty, his parents hoped he would take the throne and selected many beautiful princesses for him to marry, but he refused. At twenty-nine, he was ordained at Mahabodhi Temple in Bodhgaya, India. He then mastered the eight major treatises of grammar, Buddhist and non-Buddhist logic, medicine, astrology, Buddhist philosophy, and sutra and tantra teachings. He became known as a great scholar. He studied with thirty-four teachers including Serlingpa and became renowned in India for his scholarship and kindness. King Yeshe O of Guge in western Tibet sent the translator Gya Tsondru Senge with much gold to invite him to Tibet, but was unsuccessful. Yeshe O himself went to search for more gold but was captured by a non-Buddhist king. He died after enduring numerous tortures, including burns to his body's meridians. Following his dying wish, his nephew Jangchub O sent Naktso Lotsawa Tsultrim Gyalwa, who succeeded in inviting Atisha to Tibet for three years with permission from the Indian king and abbot of Vikramashila monastery. At age 59 in 1040, Atisha arrived in western Tibet via Nepal and stayed for three years, composing works like "Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment". After three years, he planned to return to India but was delayed by conflicts on the Nepal border. Dromtonpa then invited him to central Tibet. He first stayed briefly at Samye and Yarlung, then was invited by Dromtonpa to Nyethang. He spent nine years there and five years in Phenpo, Yerpa, Lhasa and other places, totaling 17 years teaching, translating and revising texts. Many of his translations with Naktso Lotsawa are in the Tengyur, such as Tarkajvāla and over 100 of his compositions are in volumes ki, khi, and gi of the sutra section of the Tengyur. While in Tibet, he had many learned disciples including Geshe Khuton Tsondru Yungdrung, Ngok Lotsawa Lekpai Sherab, Geshe Dromtonpa, and Gos Lotsawa Khugpa Lhatse. He passed away at age 73 in 1054 on the 18th day of the 9th Tibetan month at Nyethang. His remains were enshrined at Moche in Nyethang, and a temple was built to house them at Nyethang Or. More details can be found in "The Source of Dharma: Qualities of the Lama" by Dromtonpa, "History of Kadam: Captivating the Minds of the Wise" by Lechen Kunga Gyaltsen, and volume da of "Feast for the Wise: A Religious History" by Pawo Tsuglag Threngwa.
